Healers and Midwives
Thousands of people were accused of witchcraft in Europe from the Middle Ages into the Early Modern Era. The majority were women, but many men were also accused.
Analyzing the reasons for the accusations can be complicated, as there are various theories, and the reasons behind the accusations could vary by region and by individual case.
We do know that, while many people were accused for reasons unrelated to anything they were actually doing (such as an accusation spurred by a jealous or malicious neighbor for example), some of the accused were singled out due to certain practices or professions.
Midwives and healers were especially vulnerable to accusation. It is not that they were targeted by witch-hunters, but rather this profession opened them to accusation due to their perceived power over life and death.
Distraught mothers who were devastated due to a stillborn birth might accuse the midwife of infanticide. And, those with the powers to heal were thought to also have the power to harm.
So a mysterious death or a sudden illness after an argument with neighbor who knew the ways of plants might cause the herbalist to be accused of murder by means of witchcraft.
Three generations of Scottish women, plus their pet cat. Detail from David Allan's "Scottish Highland Family."
Source: public domain
The Protestant reformers had a zero tolerance policy toward any practice they deemed incompatible with their view of Christianity.
Cunning Folk
The term "cunning folk" refers to the "wise people" of the community. These were usually people who provided services to the community such as healing, midwifery, and divination.
Healing practices differed by practitioner, but methods included the use of herbal and animal substances, as well as "magical" means such as transference (the act of transferring the illness to another), spells and charms, and energy work.
Witch hunting became intensified in many parts of Europe during the Protestant Reformation, and especially so in Scotland. Where the Catholic Church had turned a blind eye to folk practices, and in many cases even accommodated local beliefs into Church festivals, the Protestant reformers had a zero tolerance policy toward any practice they deemed incompatible with their view of Christianity.
Therefore, people who attracted attention or were well known for beliefs considered questionable by the new church authorities were especially vulnerable to witchcraft accusations.
Again, it's not that cunning folk were targeted per se. The authorities did not necessarily go out looking to arrest cunning folk willy nilly. But, if the healer attempted to help an ill person and that person quickly took a turn for the worse, the patient's family could point the finger at the healer. Or if a particularly zealous religious authority caught wind of healing practices that smacked as pagan or demonic, then the person in question could be arrested for questioning.
Photo by Shane Broderick. Used with permission.
Source: Shane Broderick Photography
The term "old religion" referred to Catholicism during this period, not paganism. Although, Catholicism was synonymous with paganism in the minds of the Protestant reformers.
Young peasant woman in tartan. Art by William-Adolphe Bouguereau.
Source: public domain
Accused Witches Were Pagan?
It is also important to point out that the notion that all accused witches were pagan "wise people" is a myth. Most were ordinary people with no healing skill whatsoever. Even among the healers, just as there are both good physicians and quacks today there were legitimate herbalists versus charlatans selling nothing but superstition and snake oil back then as well.
And, although the Protestant leaders saw paganism everywhere they looked, the witch trials took place about one thousand years after Britain's conversion to Christianity.
Yes, the common folk retained their beliefs and customs long after the aristocracy converted and many pre-Christian customs remained. But, by this point in time these people had a strictly Christian self-identity, even if some of what they were doing was thought of as pagan by the church authorities.
The term "old religion" referred to Catholicism during this period (the 16th and 17th centuries), not paganism. Although, Catholicism was synonymous with paganism in the minds of the Protestant reformers.
The term for this mixture of belief systems is "popular religion." It refers to the beliefs and practices of the common folk as opposed to the officially sanctioned beliefs of the Church.
Just as you see a heavy influence of indigenous belief mixed with Catholicism in places such as Mexico today, there would have been a mix of indigenous practices seen in the form of Christianity practiced by Scots at the time of the Reformation.
So, while I stress that the individuals in question were not pagan, some of their practices did have pagan roots. And, that is what got them in hot water with the church.
Photo by Shane Broderick. Used with permission.
Source: Shane Broderick Photography
Although there is the obvious chemical role played by medicinal herbs, many plants were assigned roles that were strictly magical.
Photo by Olivier Pichard.
Source: Wikimedia Commons
Plants and Herbs
Now that we have discussed who and what the accused witches were, let us explore the practices of Scottish healers.
Like most of Europe, Scotland had access to some level of merchant trade even in ancient times. Certainly by the 16th and 17th centuries, Scotland received merchant vessels in her port cities, so foreign herbs and spices would have been available for purchase. Native plants, of course, would be easier and cheaper to obtain.
Some of the herbs recorded in such places as Scottish witch trial records and folklore include anise seed, foxglove, plantain, St. John's wort, and ragwort.
Plants could be consumed, applied as a poultice or salve, or even used as a talisman. When made of stone, bone, or wood, talismans would have served a psychological role as a visual aid to give comfort and reassurance to their wearer.
But when when a pouch filled with fragrant herb was worn or carried, the scent would have strengthened a talisman's psychological potency. And, we know that certain scents have emotional, psychological, and sometimes even medicinal effects. Indeed, aromatherapy is quite popular today.
Although there is the obvious chemical role played by medicinal herbs, many plants were assigned roles that were strictly magical. Rowan, for instance, was said to have the power to counteract the evil eye.
Oak and hazel trees were also revered. The oak tree's association with pagan ritual and the druids is well known. But oak leaves and bark had healing properties as well. Some of its uses were to treat such afflictions as diarrhea and dysentery, hemorrhage, sore throat, and bleeding gums.
A woman gathers wildflowers in a field. Art by Hans Dahl.
Source: public domain
We have direct evidence that certain charms that once contained the names of pagan deities were still in use with the pagan figures swapped for Christian ones.
Merseburg Incantations manuscript.
Source: Wikimedia Commons
Spells and Charms
The word "spell" brings about images of hocus pocus and bibbety bobbety boo. In actuality, the use of words was, and still is, used as one of many methods to bring about a desired effect.
Charms were used from the pagan era straight into the Christian era. With conversion to Christianity, we have direct evidence that certain charms that once contained the names of pagan deities were still in use with the pagan figures swapped for Christian ones. One example of this is the Merseburg Incantations, found in Germany.
You may wonder what German charms have to do with Scotland. Well, Lowland Scotland was heavily Anglo-Saxon, whereas the Gaelic culture was found mostly in the Highlands. There were strong similarities in culture between the Anglo-Saxons, Scandinavians, and Germans on the continent.
Also this kind of thing was very common in all areas where a foreign religion was superimposed over the indigenous belief, so it surely happened with Gaelic traditions as well.
Another practice of absorbing pagan customs that was found far and wide in Europe was the deity to saint phenomenon. We know that the Irish goddess Brigid was transformed into the Catholic Saint Brigid, for example. And these transformations occurred at all stratas of pagan belief from pantheons to personal practice.
The use of charms was so common that cunning folk were often referred to as "charmers." Often, the charmer would use Christian prayer or blessings to heal their patient. Not unlike the so called "faith healers" that are seen today.
The Sorceress by Bartolomeo Guidobono, circa 1690
Source: public domain
Today the term lapidary refers to an artisan who works with stone, but in the Middle Ages the word referred a sort of encyclopedia of stones and their magical properties.
St. Angus' Stone. Photo by John Salmon.
Source: Wikimedia Commons
Magical Stones
Items containing magical properties were common. In some cases, a healer's abilities were derived from a magical stone in their possession. Sometimes the item was a gift from the fairies, other times the item was found at random by the healer. If the stone was lost, the healer lost their magical ability.
Large stones could be places of pilgrimage for their healing properties. Just as holy wells were converted from pagan sacred places to Christian ones, certain stones in Scotland were associated with Celtic saints and known for their magical potency.
One such example was St. Angus' Stone in Balquhidder Kirk. Superstition surrounding this stone was so ingrained in the public that the church actually had it removed.
Stones were also used as instruments of magic. This was a widespread phenomenon which surely occurred in Scotland, but the best examples we have were preserved from sources in neighboring England where lapidaries written in Middle English have survived.
Today the term lapidary refers to an artisan who works with stone, but in the Middle Ages the word referred a sort of encyclopedia of stones and their magical properties.
One such lapidary describes the use of agate to elicit the truth out of someone. It instructs the practitioner to place an agate stone under the pillow of the person whom they wish to question. It says that "if the stone be good" she will answer the truth to all that she is asked.
Stone dust could also be used as an ingredient in a potion, another term for simply a medicine mixed from a recipe."
Source and Full Article
http://carolynemerick.hubpages.com/hub/Scottish-Witch-Remedies#
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